Philosophy: A Brief Guide for Undergraduates

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• Table of Contents

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• The unexamined life is not worth living. –Socrates
• Happiness is something final and complete in itself, as being the aim and end of all practical activities whatever . . . Happiness then we define as the active exercise of the mind in conformity with perfect goodness or virtue. –Aristotle
• Now laws are said to be just both from the end (when, namely, they are ordained to the common goody, from their author (. . . when the law does not exceed the power of the lawgiver), and from their form (when, namely, burdens are laid on the subjects according to an equality of proportion). –Saint Thomas Aquinas
• There is a great difference between mind and body, inasmuch as body is by nature always divisible, and the mind is entirely indivisible. –Rene Descartes
• Love is pleasure accompanied by the idea of an external cause, and hatred pain accompanied by the idea of an external cause. –Spinoza
• The effect is totally different from the cause, and consequently can never be discovered in it. –David Hume
• The very notion of what is called Matter or corporeal substance involves a contradiction. –George Berkeley
• The understanding does not derive its laws (a priori from, but prescribes them to, nature. –Immanuel Kant
• The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. –John Stuart Mill
• There can be no difference anywhere that does not make a difference somewhere. –William James
• Whereof one cannot speak thereof one must be silent. –Ludwig Wittgenstein
• Fact is richer than diction. –J. L. Austin
• Existence precedes essence. –Jean-Paul Sartre

THE FIELD OF PHILOSOPHY

Introduction

Philosophy is quite unlike any other field. It is unique both in its methods and in the nature and breadth of its subject matter. Philosophy pursues questions in every dimension of human life, and its techniques apply to problems in any field of study or endeavor. No brief definition expresses the richness and variety of philosophy. It may be described in many ways. It is a reasoned pursuit of fundamental truths, a quest for understanding, a study of principles of conduct. It seeks to establish standards of evidence, to provide rational methods of resolving conflicts, and to create techniques for evaluating ideas and arguments. Philosophy develops the capacity to see the world from the perspective of other individuals and other cultures; it enhances one's ability to perceive the relationships among the various fields of study; and it deepens one's sense of the meaning and variety of human experience.

This short description of philosophy could be greatly expanded, but let us instead illustrate some of the points. As the systematic study of ideas and issues, philosophy may examine concepts and views drawn from science, art, religion, politics, or any other realm Philosophical appraisal of ideas and issues takes many forms, but philosophical studies often focus on the meaning of an idea and on its basis, coherence, and relations to other ideas. Consider, for instance, democracy. What is it? What justifies it as a system of government? Can a democracy allow the people to vote away their own rights? And how is it related to political liberty? Consider human knowledge. What is its nature and extent? Must we always have evidence in order to know? What can we know about the thoughts and feelings of others, or about the future? What kind of knowledge, if any, is fundamental? Similar kinds of questions arise concerning art, morality, religion, science, and each of the major areas of human activity. Philosophy explores all of them. It views them both microscopically and from the wide perspective of the larger concerns of human existence.

Traditional Subfields of Philosophy

The broadest subfields of philosophy are most commonly taken to be logic, ethics, metaphysics, epistemology and the history of philosophy. Here is a brief sketch of each.

• Logic is concerned to provide sound methods for distinguishing good from bad reasoning. It helps us assess how well our premises support our conclusions, to see what we are committed to accepting when we take a view, and to avoid adopting beliefs for which we lack adequate reasons. Logic also helps us to find arguments where we might otherwise simply see a set of loosely related statements, to discover assumptions we did not know we were making, and to formulate the minimum claims we must establish if we are to prove (or inductively support) our point.
• Ethics takes up the meanings of our moral concepts such as right action, obligation and justice–and formulates principles to guide moral decisions, whether in private or public life. What are our moral obligations to others? How can moral disagreements be rationally settled? What rights must a just society accord its citizens? What constitutes a valid excuse for wrong-doing?
• Metaphysics seeks basic criteria for determining what sorts of things are real. Are there mental, physical, and abstract things (such as numbers), for instance, or is there just the physical and the spiritual, or merely matter and energy? Are persons highly complex physical systems, or do they have properties not reducible to anything physical?
• Epistemology concerns the nature and scope of knowledge. What does it mean to know (the truth), and what is the nature of truth? What sorts of things can be known, and can we be justified in our beliefs about what goes beyond the evidence of our senses, such as the inner lives of others or events of the distant past? Is there knowledge beyond the reach of science? What are the limits of self-knowledge?
• The History of Philosophy studies both major philosophers and entire periods in the development of philosophy such as the Ancient, Medieval, Modern, Nineteenth Century, and Twentieth Century periods. It seeks to understand great figures, their influence on others, and their importance for contemporary issues. The history of philosophy in a single nation is often separately studied, as in the case of American Philosophy. So are major movements within a nation, such as British Empiricism and German Idealism, as well as international movements with a substantial history, such as existentialism and phenomenology. The history of philosophy not only provides insight into the other subfields of philosophy; it also reveals many of the foundations of Western Civilization.

Special Fields of Philosophy

Many branches of philosophy have grown from the traditional core areas. What follows is a sketch of some of the major ones.

• Philosophy of Mind. This subfield has emerged from metaphysical concerns with the mind and mental phenomena. The philosophy of mind addresses not only the possible relations of the mental to the physical (for instance, to brain processes), but the many concepts having an essential mental element: belief, desire, emotion, feeling, sensation, passion, will, personality, and others. A number of major questions in the philosophy of mind cluster in the area of action theory: What differentiates actions, such as raising an arm, from mere body movements, such as the rising of an arm? Must mental elements, for example intentions and beliefs, enter into adequate explanations of our actions, or can actions be explained by appeal to ordinary physical events? And what is required for our actions to be free?
• Philosophy of Religion. Another traditional concern of metaphysics is to understand the concept of God, including special attributes such as being all-knowing, being all-powerful, and being wholly good. Both metaphysics and epistemology have sought to assess the various grounds people have offered to justify believing in God. The philosophy of religion treats these topics and many related subjects, such as the relation between faith and reason, the nature of religious language, the relation of religion and morality, and the question of how a God who is wholly good could allow the existence of evil.
• Philosophy of Science. This is probably the largest subfield generated by epistemology. Philosophy of science is usually divided into philosophy of the natural sciences and philosophy of the social sciences. It has recently been divided further, into philosophy of physics, biology, psychology, economics, and other sciences. Philosophy of science clarifies both the quest for scientific knowledge and the results yielded by that quest. It does this by exploring the logic of scientific evidence; the nature of scientific laws, explanations, and theories; and the possible connections among the various branches of science. How, for instance, is psychology related to brain biology, and biology to chemistry? And how are the social sciences related to the natural sciences.
• Subfields of Ethics. From ethics, too, have come major subfields. Political Philosophy concerns the justification–and limits–of governmental control of individuals; the meaning of equality before the law; the basis of economic freedom; and many other problems concerning government. It also examines the nature and possible arguments for various competing forms of political organization, such as laissez-faire capitalism, welfare democracy (capitalistic and socialistic), anarchism, communism, and fascism. Social Philosophy, often taught in combination with political philosophy (which it overlaps), treats moral problems with large-scale social dimensions. Among these are the basis of compulsory education, the possible grounds for preferential treatment of minorities, the justice of taxation, and the appropriate limits, if any, on free expression in the arts. The Philosophy of Law explores such topics as what law is, what kinds of laws there are, how law is or should be related to morality, and what sorts of principles should govern punishment and criminal justice in general. Medical Ethics addresses many problems arising in medical practice and medical science. Among these are standards applying to physician-patient relationships; moral questions raised by special procedures, such as abortion and ceasing of life-support for terminal patients; and ethical standards for medical research, for instance genetic engineering and experimentation using human subjects. Business Ethics addresses such questions as how moral obligations may conflict with the profit motive and how these conflicts may be resolved. Other topics often pursued are the nature and scope of the social responsibilities of corporations, their rights in a free society, and their relations to other institutions.
• Philosophy of Art (Aesthetics). This is one of the oldest subfields. It concerns the nature of art, including both the performing arts and painting, sculpture, and literature. Major questions in aesthetics include how artistic creations are to be interpreted and evaluated, and how the arts are related to one another, to natural beauty, and to morality, religion, science, and other important elements of human life.
• Philosophy of Language. This field has close ties to both epistemology and metaphysics. It treats a broad spectrum of questions about language: the nature of meaning, the relations between words and things, the various theories of language learning, and the distinction between literal and figurative uses of language. Since language is crucial in nearly all human activity, the philosophy of language can enhance our understanding both of other academic fields and of much of what we ordinarily do.
• Other Subfields. There are many other subfields of philosophy, and it is in the nature of philosophy as critical inquiry to develop new subfields when new directions in the quest for knowledge, or in any other area of human activity, raise new intellectual problems. Among the subfields not yet mentioned, but often taught at least as part of other courses, are Inductive Logic, Philosophy of Logic, Philosophy of History, Philosophy of Mathematics, Philosophy of Medicine, Philosophy of Education, Philosophy of Feminism, Philosophy of Linguistics, Philosophy of Criticism, Philosophy of Culture, and Philosophy of Film.

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THE USES OF PHILOSOPHY

General Uses of Philosophy

Much of what is learned in philosophy can be applied in virtually any endeavor. This is both because philosophy touches on so many subjects and, especially, because many of its methods are usable in any field.

• General Problem Solving. The study of philosophy enhances, in a way no other activity does, one's problem-solving capacities. It helps one to analyze concepts, definitions, arguments and problems. It contributes to one's capacity to organize ideas and issues, to deal with questions of value, and to extract what is essential from masses of information. It helps one both to distinguish fine differences between views and to discover common ground between opposing positions. And it helps one to synthesize a variety of views or perspectives into a unified whole.
• Communication Skills. Philosophy also contributes uniquely to the development of expressive and communicative powers. It provides some of the basic tools of self-expression–for instance, skills in presenting ideas through well-constructed, systematic arguments that other fields either do not use, or use less extensively. It helps one to express what is distinctive of one's view; enhances one's ability to explain difficult material; and helps one to eliminate ambiguities and vagueness from one's writing and speech.
• Persuasive Powers. Philosophy provides training in the construction of clear formulations, good arguments, and apt examples. It thereby helps one develop the ability to be convincing. One learns to build and defend one's own views, to appreciate competing positions, and to indicate forcefully why one considers one's own views preferable to alternatives. These capacities can be developed not only through reading and writing in philosophy, but also through the philosophical dialogue, in and outside the classroom, that is so much a part of a thoroughgoing philosophical education.
• Writing Skills. Writing is taught intensively in many philosophy courses, and many regularly assigned philosophical texts are unexcelled as literary essays. Philosophy teaches interpretive writing through its examination of challenging texts, comparative writing through emphasis on fairness to alternative positions, argumentative writing through developing students' ability to establish their own views, and descriptive writing through detailed portrayal of concrete examples: the anchors to which generalizations must be tied. Technique, then, is emphasized in philosophical writing. Originality is also encouraged, and students are generally urged to use their imagination and develop their own ideas.

The Uses of Philosophy in Educational Pursuits

The general uses of philosophy just described are obviously of great academic value. It should be clear that the study of philosophy has intrinsic rewards as an unlimited quest for understanding of important, challenging problems. But philosophy has further uses in deepening an education, both in college and in the many activities, professional and personal, that follow graduation.

• Understanding Other Disciplines. Philosophy is indispensable for this. Many important questions about a discipline, such as the nature of its concepts and its relation to other disciplines, do not belong to that discipline, are not usually pursued in it, and are philosophical in nature. Philosophy of science, for instance, is needed to supplement the understanding of the natural and social sciences which one derives from scientific work itself. Philosophy of literature and philosophy of history are of similar value in understanding the humanities, and philosophy of art is important in understanding the arts. Philosophy is, moreover, essential in assessing the various standards of evidence used by other disciplines. Since all fields of knowledge employ reasoning and must set standards of evidence, logic and epistemology have a general bearing on all these fields.
• Development of Sound Methods of Research and Analysis. Still another value of philosophy in education is its contribution to one's capacity to frame hypotheses, do research, and put problems into manageable form. Philosophical thinking strongly emphasizes clear formulation of ideas and problems, selection of relevant data, and objective methods for assessing ideas and proposals. It also emphasizes development of a sense of the new directions suggested by the hypotheses and questions one encounters in doing research. Philosophers regularly build on both the successes and failures of their predecessors. A person with philosophical training can readily learn to do the same in any field.

The Uses of Philosophy in Non-Academic Careers

It should be stressed immediately that the non-academic value of a field of study must not be viewed mainly in terms of its contribution to obtaining one's first job after graduation. Students are understandably preoccupied with getting their first job, but even from a narrow vocational point of view it would be short-sighted to concentrate on that at the expense of developing potential for success and advancement once hired. What gets graduates initially hired may not yield promotions or carry them beyond their first position, particularly given how fast the needs of many employers alter with changes in social and economic patterns. It is therefore crucial to see beyond what a job description specifically calls for. Philosophy need not be mentioned among a job's requirements in order for the benefits derivable from philosophical study to be appreciated by the employer, and those benefits need not even be explicitly appreciated in order to be effective in helping one advance.

It should also be emphasized here that–as recent studies show–employers want, and reward, many of the capacities which the study of philosophy develops: for instance, the ability to solve problems, to communicate, to organize ideas and issues, to assess pros and cons, and to boil down complex data. These capacities represent transferable skills. They are transferable not only from philosophy to non-philosophy areas, but from one non-philosophical field to another. For that reason, people trained in philosophy are not only prepared to do many kinds of tasks; they can also cope with change, or even move into new careers, more readily than others.

Regarding current trends in business, a writer in the New York Times reported that "businessmen are coming to appreciate an education that at its best produces graduates who can write and think clearly and solve problems" (June 23, 1981). A recent long-term study by the Bell Telephone Company, moreover, determined that majors in liberal arts fields, in which philosophy is a central discipline, "continue to make a strong showing in managerial skills and have experienced considerable business success" (Career Patterns, by Robert E. Beck). The study concluded that "there is no need for liberal arts majors to lack confidence in approaching business careers". A related point is made by a Senior Vice President of the American Can Company:

As all this suggests, there are people trained in philosophy in just about every field. They have gone not only into such professions as teaching (at all levels), medicine, and law, but into computer science, management, publishing, sales, criminal justice, public relations, and other fields. Some professionally trained philosophers are also on legislative staffs, and the work of some of them, for a senior congressman, prompted him to say:

In emphasizing the long-range benefits of training in philosophy, whether through a major or through only a sample of courses in the field, there are a least two further points to note. The first concerns the value of philosophy for vocational training The second applies to the whole of life.

First, philosophy can yield immediate benefits for students planning postgraduate work. As law, medical, business, and other professional school faculty and admissions personnel have often said, philosophy is excellent preparation for the training and later careers of the professionals in question. In preparing to enter such fields as computer science, management, or public administration, which, like medicine, have special requirements for post-graduate study, a student may of course major (or minor) both in philosophy and some other field.

The second point here is that the long-range value of philosophical study goes far beyond its contribution to one's livelihood. Philosophy broadens the range of things one can understand and enjoy. It can give one self-knowledge, foresight, and a sense of direction in life. It can provide, to one's reading and conversation, special pleasures of insight. It can lead to self-discovery, expansion of consciousness, and self-renewal. Through all of this, and through its contribution to one's expressive powers, it nurtures individuality and self-esteem. Its value for one's private life can be incalculable; its benefits for one's public life as a citizen can be immeasurable.

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THE PHILOSOPHY CURRICULUM

What a philosophy course is like. Philosophy courses differ greatly from one to another, depending on the instructor, the topics, and other factors. But some generalizations are possible. Typically, philosophy teachers encourage students to be critical, to develop their own ideas, and to appreciate both differences between things that appear alike and similarities between things that seem utterly different. Commonly, then, philosophy instructors emphasize not only what is said in the readings, but why it is said; whether or not the reasons given for believing it are good; and what the students themselves think about the matter. One might thus be asked not only what Kant said about capital punishment and why, but whether his case was sound. One might also be encouraged to formulate, and give reasons for, one's own view on the problem. Students might compare and contrast two philosophers, noting where the two agree or disagree, and perhaps indicating and justifying a preference for one of the views. One could be asked to study non-philosophers, say, legal theorists, to bring out and assess their philosophical assumptions; and one might be asked to view several philosophers in historical perspective. Characteristically, there is much room for creativity and for choice of approach; and philosophy is unique in the way it nurtures this creativity and freedom within broad but definite standards of clarity, reasoning, and evaluation.

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CONCLUSION

Philosophy is the systematic study of ideas and issues, a reasoned pursuit of fundamental truths, a quest for a comprehensive understanding of the world, a study of principles of conduct, and much more. Every domain of human experience raises questions to which its techniques and theories apply, and its methods may be used in the study of any subject or the pursuit of any vocation. Indeed, philosophy is in a sense inescapable: life confronts every thoughtful person with some philosophical questions, and nearly everyone is guided by philosophical assumptions, even if unconsciously. One need not be unprepared. To a large extent one can choose how reflective one will be in clarifying and developing one's philosophical assumptions, and how well prepared one is for the philosophical questions life presents. Philosophical training enhances our problem-solving capacities, our abilities to understand and express ideas, and our persuasive powers. It also develops understanding and enjoyment of things whose absence impoverishes many lives: such things as aesthetic experience, communication with many different kinds of people, lively discussion of current issues, the discerning observation of human behavior, and intellectual zest. In these and other ways the study of philosophy contributes immeasurably in both academic and other pursuits.

The problem-solving, analytical, judgmental, and synthesizing capacities philosophy develops are unrestricted in their scope and unlimited in their usefulness. This makes philosophy especially good preparation for positions of leadership, responsibility, or management. A major or minor in philosophy can easily be integrated with requirements for nearly any entry-level job; but philosophical training, particularly in its development of many transferable skills, is especially significant for its long-term benefits in career advancement.

Wisdom, leadership, and the capacity to resolve human conflicts cannot be guaranteed by any course of study; but philosophy has traditionally pursued these ideals systematically, and its methods, its literature, and its ideas are of constant use in the quest to realize them. Sound reasoning, critical thinking, well constructed prose, maturity of judgement, a strong sense of relevance, and an enlightened consciousness are never obsolete, nor are they subject to the fluctuating demands of the market-place. The study of philosophy is the most direct route, and in many cases the only route, to the full development of these qualities.

Prepared by the American Philosophical Association's Committee on the Status and Future of the Profession (Jaegwon Kim, Chair, 1976-1981; Robert Sleigh, Chair, 1981-1986), and Committee on Career Opportunities (Robert Audi, Chair, 1984-1985).

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Requirements for a Major or Minor in Philosophy at TCU

Requirements for a B.A. degree with a major in Philosophy. Twenty-four semester hours in philosophy with at least 6 in Topical Studies, 6 in Historical Studies and 3 in Logical Studies. At least 12 hours must be at the 40000 level or above. An accompanying minor should be chosen in consultation with the adviser for the Philosophy Department.

Requirements for a minor in Philosophy. Eighteen semester hours in philosophy with at least 3 in each of the 3 divisions (Topical, Historical and Logical Studies) at least 9 hours at the 40000 level or above. Selection of courses should be made in consultation with the designated adviser for the Philosophy Department.

PHIL 10003 must be completed prior to taking almost any other philosophy course except for those in Logical Studies. After completion of PHIL 10003, it is generally required that students take one or more 30000 level courses, where more detailed and rigorous treatment of specific areas as well as initial instruction in philosophical writing will be provided. Successful completion of courses at the 30000 level should prepare students for 40000 level courses, most of which (except for Logical Studies) satisfy the UCR Writing Emphasis requirement.

Important Note: The description of a number of 30000 or 40000 level courses include specific prerequisites for those courses. For example, in order to take PHIL 40343 (Advanced Issues in Philosophy of Law) students must first complete PHIL 10003 as well as PHIL 30413 (Introduction to Philosophy of Law). Other 40000 level courses (e.g. History of Ancient and Medieval Philosophy) require only that students

have taken some 30000 level course. The department strongly urges students interested in courses beyond PHIL 10003 to consult with a member of the department in choosing courses best suited to their curricular needs.

Honors Program. Philosophy majors who plan to pursue Departmental Honors must be members of the Honors Program and should enroll in PHIL 30003 during their junior year and PHIL 40000 during the fall semester of their senior year. (Note: PHIL 3003 may be included in the 24 semester hours required for the major, but PHIL 40000 may not.)

Pass/No Credit. Courses to be applied toward the major may not be taken on the Pass/No Credit basis. Philosophy majors may take courses in their minor on the Pass/No Credit basis.

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Philosophy Course Descriptions

Topical Studies

10003 PHILOSOPHY ONE: (Subtitle and content may vary in different sections.) This course focuses on the basic human concerns treated under the classical core elements of philosophical inquiry, and prepares students for more detailed treatments of these areas in courses at the 30000 level. Major topics include ethics, epistemology, metaphysics and the philosophies of religion, science, art and mind, and introductory logic.

30003 JUNIOR HONORS SEMINAR. Prerequisite: Permission of instructor.

30313 MORAL PROBLEMS. Prerequisite: PHIL 10003. A examination of contemporary moral issues. Typical topics include abortion, euthanasia, discrimination, preferential hiring, the enforcement of community standards, the morality of war, punishment, the rights of distant peoples and future generations, and environmental ethics.

30323 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. (RELI 30633) Prerequisite: PHIL 10003 or any religion course. Philosophy of Religion today is centrally concerned with issues relating to the rationality and justification of religious convictions. There is also an interest in the coherence of religious concepts. In this course various philosophical models for understanding and evaluating religious convictions and practices are examined and applied.

30333 ASIAN PHILOSOPHY. Prerequisite: PHIL 10003. A survey of the three intellectual traditions of Asia: Japanese, Chinese, and Indian philosophy. Topics include causality, concepts of the individual and Nature, and the nature of reality and knowing.

30343 PHILOSOPHY OF SPORT. Prerequisite: PHIL 10003. Various philosophical theories regarding the nature of sport and its role in society are examined with a view to understanding the basic concepts involved in games, such as rule-governed behavior, habitual skills, strategy, competition and contingency.

30353 POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY. Prerequisite: PHIL 10003. An introduction to the classical systems and central issues in political philosophy. The approach is largely historical, and selected major thinkers of most recent four centuries form the focus of the course.

30363 ETHICS AND HEALTHCARE. Prerequisite: PHIL 10003 or permission of the instructor. An introduction to ethical and philosophical issues in healthcare. Case studies supplemented with readings from medical, nursing, and philosophical literature.

30373 EXISTENTIAL PHILOSOPHY. Prerequisite: PHIL 10003. This course offers students an opportunity to reflect on such topics as alienation, the search for meaning, freedom, embodiment, authenticity, love, and ethics as they are deal with in texts by major writers in the 19th and 20th century movement known as existentialism.

30383 THEORIES OF HUMAN NATURE. Prerequisite: PHIL 10003. A survey of Western ideas about the nature of human beings. The course examines theories about the fundamental characteristics of human individuals and their bearing on the nature of social groups.

30393 PHILOSOPHY OF MIND. Prerequisite: PHIL 10003. A survey of past and present accounts of human mentality. Beginning with the classical ideas of the soul the course concentrates on the major theories of mind advanced by Western philosophers in the last four centuries.

30403 ENVIRONMENTAL PHILOSOPHY. Prerequisite: PHIL 10003. This course surveys several contemporary approaches for understanding our moral obligation to the environment, including intuitionism utilitarianism, deontology and feminism. By applying these approaches to concrete environmental issues, the course illustrates how efforts to preserve the environment raise special difficulties for traditional moral categories, such as intrinsic and instrumental value. The course also explores the peculiarly aesthetic dimension of environmental ethics, including claims about the value of natural beauty and unspoiled wilderness.

30413 INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY OF LAW. Prerequisite: PHIL 10003. An examination of the basic issues in Legal Theory. Topics typically include the nature of legal reasoning, the relationship between law and morality, and classical theories of law.

30970 PHILOSOPHICAL STUDIES. Prerequisite: Permission of instructor. Topics vary as announced. May be repeated for credit. (1-6 sem. hrs.)

40000 SENIOR HONORS RESEARCH. Prerequisite: Permission of instructor. (1-3 sem. hrs.)

40203 SEMINAR IN METAPHYSICS. Prerequisite: Permission of instructor. Course content to vary by semester and will include such areas as philosophy of mind, philosophy of history, action theory, ontology, Process Philosophy and Continental Philosophy.

40303 SEMINAR IN VALUE THEORY. Prerequisite: Permission of instructor. Course content to vary by semester and will include such areas as metaethics, phenomenology of values, philosophy of religion, legal philosophy, philosophy of sport and aesthetics.

40323 PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE. Prerequisites: PHIL 10003 or advanced standing as a major in one of the physical, life, or social sciences (or permission of the instructor.) Includes What are the aims of science? What are the roles of theory and experiment in science? What is explanation? What is a scientific law? How do scientists justify their claims? How does scientific knowledge develop and grow? What are the differences between physical and live sciences and the social sciences?

40343 ADVANCED ISSUES IN PHILOSOPHY OF LAW. Prerequisites: PHIL 10003 and 30413. A rigorous examination of specific issues in legal theory and jurisprudence. Topics may include the nature of law, legal adjudication, law and economics, theories of punishment, and legal responsibility and obligation.

40373 ART AND THE AESTHETIC. Prerequisite: PHIL 10003. Philosophical theories are presented regarding the nature of art and aesthetic experience. The concepts of representation, expression, formalism, the work of art, intention, meaning, truth, and criticism are discussed along with how they contribute to answering the question, "What is art?"

40383 ADVANCED TOPICS IN HUMAN NATURE. Prerequisites: PHIL 10003 and PHIL 30383 (or PHIL 30393). Critical analysis of contemporary theories of human nature advanced by philosophers, psychologists, biologists, cognitive scientists and others. The thinkers under consideration will vary but examples would include E. O. Wilson, B. F. Skinner, Sigmund Freud, John Searle and Daniel Dennett.

40393 ETHICAL THEORY. Prerequisites: PHIL 10003 and PHIL 30353 (or PHIL 30313 or PHIL 30363). A systematic treatment of basic issues in moral theory, critically examining such issues as the possibility of providing rational foundations for moral belief, and the nature of moral judgments and moral reasoning, focusing on the work of major historical and contemporary figures.

40403 SEMINAR IN EPISTEMOLOGY. Prerequisite: Permission of instructor. Course content to vary by semester and include areas such as theories of perception, theories of truth, analytic philosophy, philosophy of science, phenomenology, pragmatism and empiricism.

50933 PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY. (HIST 50933) Prerequisites: 6 hours history and 3 hours philosophy. A philosophical analysis of historiography; the logical, conceptual and epistemological characterization of what historians do; also includes a study of traditional attempts to discover some meaning which transcends the intelligibility sought and achieved by ordinary historical work.

50970 DIRECTED STUDIES IN PHILOSOPHY. Prerequisite: Permission of instructor.

Historical Studies

40213 HISTORY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY. Prerequisites: PHIL 10003 and any 30000 level PHIL course. A survey of the major figures in Western thought between 600 BCE and 1500 CE. Among those included are the Presocratics, Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus, Augustine and Aquinas.

40220 CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHY. Prerequisite: Permission of instructor. An historical study of one or more philosophical movements in the twentieth century. Topics vary and include analytic, existential, phenomenological and process philosophy. May be repeated for credit. (3-6 sem. hrs.)

40223 HISTORY OF MODERN PHILOSOPHY. Prerequisites: PHIL 10003 and PHIL 30383 (or PHIL 30393 or permission of instructor). A survey of the major figures in Western thought from 1500 to 1800. Among those included are Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume and Kant.

40233 HISTORY OF CONTINENTAL PHILOSOPHY IN THE 19TH AND 20TH CENTURIES. Prerequisites: PHIL 10003 and PHIL 40223. The philosophical tradition after Kant developed in different ways in Continental Europe from the ways it did in English speaking countries. This course examines those developments, especially in Germany and France. Such thinkers as Hegel and the German Idealists, Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, Husserl and Heidegger, Sartre and Merleau-Ponty, Gadamer, Ricoeur and Derrida are discussed.

40243 ANGLO-AMERICAN PHILOSOPHY. Prerequisites: PHIL 10003 and PHIL 40223. A historical study of either the analytic or pragmatic tradition. Such figures as Carnap, Neurath, Schlick, Moore, Russell, and Ayer; or Royce, Peirce, Mead, James, Dewey, and Quine; or a combination of philosophers are studied.

Logical Studies

20103 CRITICAL REASONING. How to detect, analyze, and critically evaluate reasoning in ordinary language and its technical counterparts found in business, economics, etc. The course is designed to enhance skills for handling arguments in a variety of texts. Understanding the arguments and theories encountered in one's situations is stressed, along with how one can improve one's own expression

of arguments and theories, especially in writing. Topics include techniques of reconstruction and evaluation in a process of self-editing, detection of fallacies, and distinguishing correct from incorrect reasoning.

30133 SYMBOLIC LOGIC I. (Math 30133) An introduction to the scope and limits of modern logic. The nature of logical systems and the various areas of logic are discussed. Alternative proof- procedures in propositional logic and predicate logic are presented.

30143 SYMBOLIC LOGIC II. (MATH 30143) Prerequisite: PHIL 30133. A continuation of 30133, with an emphasis on predicate logic, nonstandard logic, and metalogic.

40103 SEMINAR IN LOGIC. Prerequisite: PHIL 30133 or MATH 20524 (or permission of instructor). Advanced topics in logic. Course content to vary by semester and will include areas such as formal languages, mathematical logic, deontic logic, modal systems, and philosophy of language.